Jewish Settlement

Early Jewish “Zionism” marked the beginning of modern Jews conscientiously trying to migrate and settle in Israel, and Jerusalem especially. As early as the era under Saladin and his rule Jews were allowed and at times even encouraged to resettle in Jerusalem, which lead Saladin to be dubbed “The New Cyrus” in Isaiah 45. In 1141 CE, a Spanish Jew by the name of Judah Halevi tried to make aliyah to Israel, supporting the notion of the importance of all Jews returning to “the land of their fathers.” Maimonides, a Jewish philosopher, asserted that Jerusalem was the “center of the Jewish people,” suggesting the divine presence in the city could not be banished from the Temple Mount even if the Jews were.

1882 marks the beginning of the “secular” Zionist movement, in which secular, or less devout, Jews began the push for a Jewish state. In 1896 Theodor Herzel, a renowned Zionist in the Jewish community, writes a book entitled “The Jewish State” in which he advocates the need of a Jewish homeland. He did not push the need of this state to be anywhere of religious significance, or even because of the sanctity of Jerusalem, and actually suggested the state be in or near Uganda in Africa at the Second Zionist Conference.  This concept he suggested and steps he recommended to making a Jewish state a reality lead some to call him, “Messiah, son of David.” Messiah means anointed, and because Herzel was thought to begin to lead Israel as a King or Messiah would. He was called a son of David because the Biblical sense in 2 Samuel 7 was that the Messiah had to be a descendant of the house of David as G-d had promised.

1899, the First Zionist Conference was held in Basel, Switzerland. From the conference, Jewish leaders, many of them secular, decided to build Tel Aviv, not Jerusalem. Today it functions as a modern city with many of the attractions and problems associated with large cities today, especially Los Angeles with its lack of public transportation.

Modern immigration to Israel was heightened by anti-Semitism elsewhere in the world, especially in Europe and the Middle East. Porgrams in the Islamic world were initially instigated by Catholics in 1840, and such attacks against Jews began in Russia in 1882. This fleeing from Russia and Eastern Europe into what was then called Palestine caused a sensation known as the “second aliyah” in 1902.

In some ways, the two World Wars were beneficial for the development of Israel as a state. The Balfour Declaration in 1917, made shortly after the end of WWI, promised Jews the development of a national homeland for them. The Sykes-Picot Agreement made in 1916 divided the Ottoman Empire into spheres of control and influence between the WWI victors, with the British getting control of Palestine. The British issued a mandate that was in effect between 1918 and 1948, respecting the holy places of all faiths.

The suggested Peel Plan of 1937 would have partitioned a separate Arab Palestine and Jewish Israel, but the plan was rejected by Arabs who did not want to see the existence of a Jewish state at all. Instead, through subsequent fighting, the most significant being through the Israeli War of Independence in 1948, Jews eventually acquired even more land, later annexing the Golan Heights and Gaza Strip.

Mamluk and Ottoman Jerusalem

The period of Jerusalem under Mamluk and the Ottomans marked one of relative peace and tolerance for the city, most notably for the Jews. Under Mamluks, who were former slaves who earned their heightened status by becoming Muslim soldiers, Jerusalem became a religious center. This fact was mostly because Jerusalem was politically and militarily insignificant, so the Mamluks who focused on militaristic power saw relatively little reason to prevent free worship in the city. The period of the Mamluks lasted from 1250-1516 BCE, and was a time of relative peace and prosperity, despite the Black Plague breaking out in the city from 1351-1353. Mamluk architecture also commanded the respect and attention of many at the time and for centuries afterwards, as the maquarna, or decorated arches above entrances, were considered beautiful and impressive. The Mamluks also started and saw out a charitable foundation in Jerusalem, offering assistance to the needy in the city.

Jewish Zionistic teachings also became more prevalent, as leaders such as Nachmonides who was exiled from Spain for refuting Christianity began preaching the importance for Jews to make aliyah and go live in Jerusalem.

Ottoman Jerusalem continued to see the religious tolerance in Jerusalem, as Ottoman leaders were among the most tolerant of the Jews in their kingdom. Saleiman the Magnificent ruled from 1520 to 1566, and was dubed “the law giver.” He restored the laws of Jerusalem and established a shari’a court, which was a court that ruled based on the laws in the Qu’ran. Ottoman architecture was impressive but also served practical purposes. In addition to restoring the walls of the city, the Ottomans built defensively strategic gates on all three sides of the city. The Damascus Gate faced North, towards the route to Damascus, and today leads into the Muslim Quarter of the city.

Today, two important structures that once benefited the city are partially destroyed. The Jaffa Gate, which was a part of the walls surrounding the city of Jerusalem and was built with the same militaristically strategic aim as the Damascus and other 2 gates of the city, was partially torn down by orders from Kaiser Wilhelm because he wanted to make a grand entrance into the city and his procession could not easily maneuver through the gate. Also, the Western wall, which was once a part of a series of walls surrounding the Great Temple Herod built, is the only remaining part of these retaining walls. Although this wall was not a part of the great temple itself, the Gates of Heaven are rumored to be above this wall, and it is an important site of religious pilgrimage to Jews even to this day. Shekhinah also settled there after the destruction of the temple.

Islamic Jerusalem

The prophet Muhammad’s growing and faithful following had little to no disagreement during his lifetime, as the patriarch had no real consenting opinions to his, but when he died without leaving an heir the issue of leadership within the fledgling religion came into question. Caliphs, who were delegates or representatives, we established to lead the Islamic community after Muhammed’s death. The main three communities were located in Abu-Bakr, Umar, and Uthman. However, as one could expect, the varying teachings of these caliphs created some disagreements between followers. In Umar, Ali’s religious teachings emphasized kinship, a trait that came to be characteristic of the Shiite sect. In Uthman, Mu’awiya emphasized traditional interpretation and practice of Islam. This school of thought has come to dominate the Sunni Muslims to this day.

Kaaba came to be significant to the Muslims of this time because of the legend and religious backstory associated with it. Scientific evidence also establishes some interesting significance to this region, located in the eastern corner, as a meteorite that crashed into heaven from earth dates back to the time of Adam and Eve. Kaaba marks the first extension of Islam from its origin, as the people used to worship idols but ceased doing so when Islamic influence came to dominate the people’s religious beliefs. Additionally, the traditions associated with Jerusalem are tied to Mecca for Islam and the people who practice it.

The Islamic places of significance within the city of Jerusalem still attracts worshipers to this day. The Dome of the Rock, located in the Muslim Quarter of the city, stands as a symbol of respect for the religion. Not only is it the place where Adam’s head is said to be buried, but the beautiful shrine that adorns the site elicits pride among Muslims and is supposed to serve as a reminder to them of their reverence for g-d. The Dome of the Rock is commonly misconceived as a mosque, and I confess that I too had held this belief before we discussed it in class, but in fact the site is a shrine, not a mosque. It is splendidly designed and decorated, with geometrical designs adorning it and calligraphy writing all over it. Additionally, no graven images (of animals or people) are present, as this sacred place is thought to be too holy and important for such images.

The Dome of the Chain is an interesting and significant object. It is rumored to be a physical axis mundi, to run from Heaven down to the center of the earth and serve as a link between g-d and humans. It is also rumored to have supernatural powers to determine the true honesty of those who are in its presence and attempt to touch it, as it is said that only the truly honest people of the world are able to touch it, and for everyone else who attempts to the chain will constantly move out of their grasp so they will not be able to.

Byzantine Jerusalem

We begin to focus in on Christianity and its relationship to Jerusalem. The New Testament, consisting of Mark, Luke, Matthew and Jonathan, tells and warns of the impending apocalypse. Mark contains reference to Jesus warning and predicting the apocalypse, but the legitimacy and authenticity of this is questioned by some. Some assert that Mark, who wrote the book, added this prediction after the fact and put words in Jesus’ mouth, but neither claim has been proven or disproven. Christians believe that the Biblical reference to the rebuilding of the Great Temple in Jerusalem in three days refers symbolically to Jesus’ own death and resurrection. Thus, Christians feel a tie and sense of importance to the temple, even though it is not a religious center or place of prayer for them.

The Council of Nicea established some importance rules and guidelines. The significance and importance of the Holy Trinity was re-established and emphasized, as were the three new and difference forms of worship. Christians feel a tie to Jerusalem as a holy center as an Abrahamic religion. Yet for them, the center of religious life and worship is not the great temple, or even the Old Testament (aka the Hebrew Bible), but instead revolves around Jesus and the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. Christians continue to value the city of Jerusalem and worship there in their quarter of the city, where this Church is located.

This era also saw a new view of the city of Jerusalem, for people of all faiths. Jerusalem and the Temple Mount were no longer drawn as the physical center of maps of Israel and the region, but were drawn in their more realistic position to the North and slightly East. The fact that Jerusalem was still regarded as an axis mundi and significant religious stronghold reveals that people maintained their religious senses and values without requiring physically tangible religious elements. This mark of faith was also exhibited by the Jews who continued to practice even after Solomon’s temple was destroyed, yet the moving of Jerusalem on maps from the center to a more realistic position was accepted by people of all faiths.

The fact that Jerusalem was ceased to be drawn as a physical axis mundi does not indicate that physical structures and places no longer held religious significance. For instance, in Justinia the people rebuilt a structure to serve as a house of prayer and replace the temple. This act commemorated and preserved sacred space for the people in the area.

Factors Contributing to the Sacredness of Jerusalem

The notion of certain places and times being sacred has existed throughout time and across generations. In order for something to be believed or declared sacred, one of two things typically needs to occur there. Either someone of significance is born in this location, or something of religious or cultural importance happens there. As more and more followers begin to believe in a place’s holiness, its reputation and popularity grows. Jerusalem is arguably the most famous holy place in history, and got its reputation for being great in a few key ways. The routes Jerusalem is situated near and between, namely the Via Maris and King’s Highway were crucial trade routes during the beginning of Jerusalem’s existence and are still frequented today. Additionally, Jerusalem, and Israel itself for that matter, are in an area that connects 3 continents, Europe, Asia and Africa, and is in the Fertile Crescent where human life is thought to have originated. The sacred space of Jerusalem is consecrated by  attracting stories that build the reputation of Jerusalem. Such stories can be historical or borrowed, and may or may not all be entirely accurate.

The physical features of Jerusalem also contribute to the suggestion of its greatness. It is situated high upon a hill, surrounded by steep valleys on 3 sides. The Kidron Valley is on the East, Tirapean Valley is on the West, and the Hinnom Valley lies to the South. Additionally, as mentioned earlier, Jerusalem’s topographic position along trade routes offered both means of communication and access to some potential trading, which allowed the city to thrive and build a reputation for greatness. Furthermore, the availability of some small sources of water allowed the city to thrive and be sustainable. The Gihon Spring offered a convenient, albeit slightly limited source of water for the city, which was imperative to its survival.

The Biblical and historical listings events and stories listing the greatness of Jerusalem established its sacredness as a site, yet the topographic and geographic features of Jerusalem helped to establish it as a thriving and successful city from the beginning.

please note: I was confused about the correct blog posting format in the beginning of the quarter and came to your office hours for help setting this blog up. I just remembered I had not posted my earlier blogs correctly, so I decided to do so now. I hope that is acceptable. Thank you.

Building the Tradition of Jerusalem

The interrelated role between government and religious leaders has long been a point of contention in politics, especially in theocratic societies. Even in ancient Jerusalem, prophets serve as a check and counter measure to kings and other rulers. While monarchs announced secular decrees, prophets made divine proclamations believed to be declaring the will of G-d. However, often the way religious leaders announced and reported events should happen did not line up with the historical events as they unfolded. This occurred when the Babylonians destroyed the first temple in 586 BCE, which seemed to counter the promise the Jews believed G-d had made for them that a descendant of David would always reign over the kingdom of Israel. Some choose to believe this was evidence that religious leaders were wrong and the entire premise of a promise to the house of Israel did not exist, yet some sought to rectify this disconnect between the events that occurred and G0d’s promise. They reinterpreted the promise to mean that G-d would send a Messiah to restore all peace and order on earth. This is where the tie to Jesus is introduced, as many saw him tied to the Jewish people when he was called the “Son of David” in 2 Samuel 7.

Solomon’s Jerusalem was deemed a sacred space as well, and tied into the notions of Jerusalem as being the chosen land for the Jews who saw themselves as the chosen people, and now had a chosen temple that G-d ordained should be built. This belief manifests itself multiple times throughout the Hebrew Bible. As early as Genesis 22 the story of Abraham’s binding of Isaac on Mt. Moriah, which is believed to be the present-day temple mount, is introduced. In 2 Samuel 7 the “Promise to David” is introduced. In Deuteronomy 12 the Law of Chosen Place is discussed. In 1 Kings 6-7 the Construction of the Temple is presented, and in 1 Kings 8 Solomon’s Prayer, consecrating the temple and site itself, is written about. All of these factors helped build the reputation and tradition of Jerusalem, especially when coupled with other aspects of religious significance, such as the Ark of the Covenant and Malchizidek’s story of Salem.

please note: I thought I had posted this in the correct place and remembered I hadn’t, so I found this post from week 3 in my word documents and uploaded it now.

Foreign Governors of Jerusalem

After discussion the so-called horrors of the leadership of Herod the Great, discussing other, clearly worse and more incompetent Roman governors who ruled Jerusalem makes Herod’s accomplishments seem great by comparison. Pontius Pilate was an inept and inexperienced leader who was eventually recalled by the Romans. He provoked the Jews through insensitivity to their practices and laws, and was also highly ineffective. In general, the Romans treated Jerusalem between 6 and 66 CE as a sort of “training ground” to test leaders to see if they had promise. This problem was damaging in itself, yet combining it with the rise in Jewish nationalism created violent effects. Zealots were Jewish militants who would attack and kill Roman soldiers in the street, believing they were acting as liberators from the oppressive, often corrupt, and inept Roman rule.

As a response to the poor leadership of the Roman governors in Jerusalem, signs of attempts at Jewish independence, like the Jewish revolt coin, emerged. By printing their own money, Jews were both establishing their independence and finding ways to avoid using the Roman coins that were offensive to them, as they featured pagan images of leaders faces on them. Additionally, these Jewish revolt coins were also a means of propaganda, as the phrases inscribed on them included “Shekel of Israel, Year 2″ (from 67 CE) and “for the freedom of Zion.” These concepts were intended to inspire greater sense of Jewish nationalism and patriotism, even starting the Jewish calendar over at a year that did not coincide with Roman dates.

This “First Great Revolt” of the Jewish people was eventually defeated by the more militiaristic Roman government, and they began to mint coins designed to celebrate this defeat of the Jews. As a constant reminder of Roman victory, Judea Capta and Judea Devicta Coins were produced depicting images of a defeated Jewish people. The Romans, too, understood the power of coins as propaganda tools, and knew the Jews would constantly have to use and handle these coins to purchase things. These coins depicted Jewusalem as a woman crying under one of the region’s ubiqitous palm trees, with a conquoring emperor standing on the other side of the palm tree looking down upon her. These images were meant to depict the power the Romans had over the Jews of Israel and Jerusalem especially, which further highlights the insensitive, and sometimes even cruel, nature of Roman rule over the Jews in the region at this time.